Malaysian Journal of Microscopy

EFFECT OF PEG AND PVA BINDERS ON THE CNC MILLING OF HYDROXYAPATITE FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

Noor Hakim Rafai — 2025-06-01

Hydroxyapatite (HAP) is widely used in biomedical and dental applications due to its unique properties. However, the machining process is important in giving attention to parameter materials and machines to produce a near-net shape for those implants with appropriate surface roughness. It is a challenge due to their high brittleness and hardness. In this context, understanding machining parameters and sample preparation is an essential factor in producing machinable HAP. In the present study, powder compaction with different binder content has been used to produce a sample for machining. This research prepares a sample by dry mixing, pressing, and sintering. HAP powder is granulated with water-soluble binders, Polyethylene Glycol (PEG), and Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) in amounts ranging from 1% to 4% by weight. PEG, as a soft binder, contributes to compaction, and PVA, as a hard binder, contributes to green strength. A CNC milling machine with an end mill cutter and constant parameters is used for machining. The samples were characterized using X-ray Diffraction (XRD) for phase identification, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) for morphology, and a Surface Roughness Tester for surface roughness. XRD analysis shows that HAP with different binder ratios did not change the HAP structure. SEM analysis shows that different binder percentages create different surface properties, such as pore size and surface finish. HAP mixed with 4% PEG and 1% PVA (PEG4 PVA1) has a smooth surface finish after milling with a surface roughness (Ra) of 0.988 μm. Based on the machining outcome, it shows that a combination of binder and parameter machine can alter the surface finish and geometrical accuracy for biomedical applications.

MORPHOLOGICAL AND MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DENSE POROUS CERAMICS USING CARBON BLACK AND POLYMETHYL METHACRYLATE AS PORE-FORMING AGENTS AT VARYING CONCENTRATIONS

Mohamed Lokman Jalaluddin — 2025-06-01

Porous ceramics are widely used in high-performance engineering applications due to their unique porosity, mechanical stability, and thermal resistance. However, optimizing the trade-off between porosity and mechanical strength remains a significant challenge, particularly when employing different pore-forming agents. This study investigates the morphological and mechanical characteristics of dense porous ceramics fabricated using carbon black (CB) and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) as pore-forming agents at varying concentrations (1–5 wt%). Despite extensive research on individual porogens, a comparative analysis of their influence on microstructure evolution, pore distribution, and mechanical performance in a single ceramic system remains largely unexplored. Ceramic samples were synthesized via a solid-state reaction and subjected to controlled sintering at 1175°C. Microstructural characterization using Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) revealed that CB generated small, uniformly distributed closed pores, enhancing mechanical integrity, while PMMA introduced larger, interconnected open pores, promoting higher porosity but reducing strength. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed the presence of orthoclase, silicon dioxide, and mullite phases, with variations in crystallinity influenced by porogen type. Mechanical evaluation through three-point flexural testing demonstrated that 3 wt% CB resulted in the highest flexural strength of 49.72 MPa, whereas PMMA incorporation led to a substantial decrease, reaching 14.80 MPa at 5 wt% due to excessive porosity and structural discontinuities. This study provides new insights into porogen selection for tailoring ceramic microstructures, demonstrating that CB is more suitable for applications requiring high mechanical strength, while PMMA is beneficial where enhanced permeability is prioritized. The findings contribute to the development of high-performance porous ceramics for energy-efficient insulation, filtration, and lightweight structural applications, offering a systematic framework for optimizing porosity-mechanical strength relationships in advanced ceramic materials.

MICROSTRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION AND WEAR PROPERTIES OF STEEL SURFACE COMPOSITE COATING WITH TiC NANOPARTICLES THROUGH GTAW ARCING TECHNIQUES

Alin Qistina Shamsuri — 2025-06-01

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) for surface modification is a procedure that improves the substrate surface of material, effectively improving its hardness while influencing tribological behaviors. The aim of this work is to investigate the impact of the GTAW arcing method on the wear properties and microstructures of steel surface composite coatings containing nanoparticles of titanium carbide (TiC) ceramic particles. The GTAW process was conducted at different arcing currents which were 120 A, 140 A and 160 A with the same pulse frequency of 25 pulses per second (PPS). Microstructural characterization and wear testing were conducted using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM), and reciprocating tribometer, respectively. Findings indicate the arcing current significantly affects the microstructural regarding the composite coating with varying concentrations of the TiC nanoparticle’s structure. The best result for Vickers microhardness value using current 140 A was found to be 367.21 Hv, while the lowest result of current using 120 A with 265.42 Hv. This is due to the high population of TiC nanoparticles in the composite coating. The lowest wear rate was observed for the current at 140 A with a value of 7.8 x 10^-6 mm³/Nm. These results demonstrate the increment of hardness resulting in the improvement of wear properties. The optimum arcing current of 140 A for GTAW arcing of type-2205 duplex stainless steel for surface modification can be recommended for wear industrial applications.

FABRICATION OF UNIFORM POROUS LAMELLAR ZINC STRUCTURES BY DEALLOYING OF EUTECTIC BINARY ZINC-ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Muhammad Afiq Irfan Mohd Shumiri — 2025-06-01

Porous metallic zinc is a promising hostless electrode material for zinc-based energy storage applications due to excellent electrochemical behavior. Among various fabrication methods, dealloying stands out for its simplicity and efficiency. However, challenges such as uneven pore distribution and uncontrollable pore structures compromise the quality of porosity. In this study, highly uniform porous lamellar zinc structures were developed through chemical dealloying of the eutectic binary zinc–aluminium alloy system. The resultant lamellar configuration was finely tuned by adjusting the precursor alloy composition and bimetallic phase distribution. A homogenous zebra-like quasi-periodic lamellar pattern was achieved at eutectic composition of Zn₉₅Al₅ (wt%). This structure exhibited greater uniformity compared to the eutectoid-rich lamellar structure observed in the hypereutectic Zn₉₀Al₁₀ alloy. A large Zn lamellar thickness of 2919.7 ± 371.0 nm and interlamellar spacing of 1248.3 ± 203.6 nm were produced under low solidification rate by furnace cooling. Optimal dealloying parameters of 4 M NaOH at 50 °C were determined, providing ideal balance between the reaction rate and structural stability. The thick lamellae promoted high dealloying rate of 1.988 mg/cm²/h, resulting in high peak-to-valley roughness of 3698 nm. Selective dissolution of the less noble aluminium component left behind the alternating zinc-rich lamellar framework as examined by variable-pressure scanning electron microscopy (VPSEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectroscopy. This structure endows abundant pores with consistent interlayer spacing.

TOXICITY TESTING OF SELECTIVE LASER MELTING TECHNOLOGY TOWARDS PRODUCTION OF TITANIUM ALLOYS (Ti6Al4V) ORTHOPAEDIC METAL IMPLANT: PRIMARY ANALYSIS

Nurul Hafiza Mohd Jan — 2025-06-01

Selective Laser Melting (SLM) technology has garnered significant attention for producing customisable biomedical implants with complex structures and superior mechanical properties. It is increasingly used for tailoring orthopaedic implants, such as 6-hole plates. Titanium alloys (Ti alloys) implants are prevalent in orthopaedic surgery due to their excellent properties and bioinertness. A successful implant relies steadily on effective interaction with surrounding tissues. This study assesses the in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility of Ti alloy orthopaedic implants produced via SLM technology at the primary stage by examining cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and pyrogenicity. The results from the MEM elution assay indicated no reactivity (Grade 0) at
100 % concentration when exposed to SLM Ti alloys implant. The AMES test results showed that the number of revertant colonies treated with SLM Ti alloys implant did not exceed twice that of the negative control, regardless of metabolic activation. As for pyrogenicity analysis, the output shows that the absence of pyrogenic substance was noted after being introduced with SLM Ti alloys implant extractions. The positive and negative controls exhibited the expected action. In conclusion, the findings suggest that the production of Ti alloys orthopaedic implants through SLM technology do not induce toxic effects, confirming their biocompatibility and safety for orthopaedic use. This research highlights the promising biological safety of Ti alloys orthopaedic implants manufactured through SLM technology, with no observed toxicity at the primary stage.

ENHANCED SUPERCAPACITOR PERFORMANCE WITH NICKEL OXIDE AND ACTIVATED CARBON COMPOSITES IN WATER-IN-SALT ELECTROLYTE (WISE)

Jaclyn Ingu Jublee — 2025-06-01

Supercapacitors are high-power density energy storage systems, yet increasing their energy density remains a key challenge. Activated carbon (AC) is a widely used electrode material in supercapacitor due to its high surface area, but its capacitance is often limited. In this work, integrating AC with nickel oxide (NiO), which offers a high theoretical capacitance of up to 2584 F g^-1 has been explored to enhance charge storage and further boost energy density. The electrochemical performance of supercapacitors using NiO/AC composites with weight ratio (g/g) of 1:3 (NC513), 1:1 (NC511) and 3:1 (NC531) was investigated and compared to a pure AC electrode (NC50). NiO was synthesized via precipitation, calcined at 400 °C, and characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX). Electrochemical testing was conducted using a three-electrode system for linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) analysis. A symmetrical two-electrode system was fabricated for cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) analysis in a water-in-salt electrolyte of 15 M Ca(NO₃)₂. All electrodes achieved a 2.5 V potential window, with electric double-layer capacitor (EDLC) behavior. SEM analysis reveals a fragmented structure and increased roughness on NC513, enhancing electrolyte accessibility. This explains NC513’s optimized performance, with the highest specific capacitance of 35.32 F g^-1 at 10 mV s^-1 and an energy density of 9.96 Wh kg^-1 at 0.5 A g^-1, with the lowest iR drop (0.1 V), outperforming NC50. These findings highlight the potential of optimized NiO/AC (NC513) composites for enhancing supercapacitor performance by improving charge storage capability and conductivity. This study advances safer, high-performance supercapacitors, offering valuable insights into electrode material design for next-generation energy storage.

EFFECT OF TEOS CONCENTRATION ON SILICA COATING MORPHOLOGY AND THERMAL STABILITY OF ELAEIS GUINEENSIS FIBER FOR FIRE RETARDANT APPLICATIONS

Norain Idris — 2025-06-01

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) empty fruit bunch (EGEFB) fiber, a prevalent agricultural byproduct in Malaysia, exhibits significant potential as an environmentally sustainable insulating material attributable to its thermal and acoustic resistive characteristics. Nonetheless, its pronounced flammability constrains its utilization, thereby necessitating the implementation of fire-retardant treatments. This study investigates the implications of varying concentrations of tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) on the silica coating morphology of EGEFB fibers, employing a sol-gel approach with TEOS-ethanol ratios of 1:4, 1:7, and 1:10. The coated fibers underwent thermal curing at 80 °C for one hour. Characterization of the coated fibers was executed through X-ray diffraction (XRD) to ascertain the presence of silica, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) for the analysis of coating morphology, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) for the evaluation of thermal stability. The results elucidate that lower concentrations of TEOS yield more homogeneous silica coatings, resulting in enhanced adhesion and improved thermal stability, whereas higher TEOS concentrations lead to irregular coatings with suboptimal adhesion. These findings underscore the importance of optimizing TEOS concentration to attain effective, thermally stable coatings on EGEFB fibers. This paper offers valuable insights into the enhancement of fire resistance and thermal properties of EGEFB fibers, thereby contributing to the advancement of sustainable material development for sectors aiming for environmentally friendly, thermally stable and fire-retardant insulation materials.

DISTRIBUTION OF IRON SAND BASED ON SUSCEPTIBILITY VALUES IN ULAKAN TAPAKIS, PADANG PARIAMAN, WEST SUMATRA

Adree Octova — 2025-06-01

This study investigates the distribution of iron sand deposits in the Ulakan Tapakis coastal area, Padang Pariaman, West Sumatra, based on magnetic susceptibility values. The region is known for its abundant but underutilized iron sand resources. Previous studies have not sufficiently examined the correlation between magnetic susceptibility and mineralogical composition, which is crucial for optimizing extraction. This research addresses that gap by integrating field sampling, laboratory analysis, and microscopy examination. Twenty borehole samples were collected using a hand auger method arranged in four parallel and five perpendicular transects along the coastline. The magnetic mineral content was determined by magnetic separation, and magnetic susceptibility was measured using the Bartington MS2B sensor at both low and high field settings. Results revealed significant spatial variability, with the highest magnetic mineral content (28.63%) and susceptibility values (5574.8 × 10⁻⁸ m³/kg) observed at point 1D. Microscopy analysis of this sample confirmed the presence of iron (Fe) and zirconium (Zr) minerals, with Fe comprising 79.98% of the material. These findings indicate a heterogeneous distribution of magnetic minerals influenced by lithological and depositional conditions. The integration of susceptibility measurements and mineralogical data provides a practical framework for identifying high-potential extraction zones. The outcomes support the development of targeted mineral exploration strategies and sustainable resource management practices in similar coastal environments. Future research should aim to incorporate advanced imaging techniques for better characterization and explore broader industrial applications of iron sand.

EPOXY COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH FISH-DERIVED HYDROXYAPATITE FOR LOAD-BEARING BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

Ismail Zainol — 2025-06-01

The combination of epoxy resins and hydroxyapatite (HA) has emerged as a promising material system in various medical applications, particularly in the fields of tissue engineering, drug delivery, and orthopaedic implants. This synergy exploits the favourable properties of both materials, including the mechanical strength of epoxy and the bioactivity of hydroxyapatite. In this study epoxy resin was mixed with micron size of natural hydroxyapatite powder from fish scales (FsHA). The mechanical properties, chemical and biological properties of the composite was investigated by means of flexural strength, impact strength, chemical properties and biocompatibility study and morphological observation. Addition of micron size FsHA in the epoxy matrix significantly improved the impact and flexural strength of epoxy/FsHA composite. At 10% FsHA loading, flexural strength was improved about 77% and the impact strength increased about 65% as compared to neat epoxy. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) has confirmed the present of the FsHA in the matrix. From FTIR analysis no chemical interaction between FsHA and epoxy matrix was detected. XRD results indicated that the FsHA is in crystalline phase. The morphology analysis of the fractured surface was studied using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) revealed that the homogeneous distribution of the FsHA particles in the matrix especially at 10% FsHA content. The overall results indicated that the epoxy/FsHA composite has potential for load bearing application in medical application.

GROWTH MECHANISM OF DIAMOND-LIKE CARBON FLAKES REINFORCED OXIDE COATING ON AA2017 ALUMINIUM ALLOY

Nur Adilah Mohd Rawian — 2025-06-01

The incorporation of diamond-like carbon (DLC) flakes in the oxide coating significantly reduced the surface defect and enhanced the microhardness of the composite oxide coating. However, the growth mechanism for type III disordered porous oxide coating and the crack reduction mechanism when incorporating DLC flakes in the oxide coating remains unclear. The study aims to clarify the growth mechanism by examining the oxide coating with and without incorporating DLC flakes at different anodizing times. Anodizing of the aluminium substrate (AA2017-T4) in 20 wt.% sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) with a constant current of 2 A and 15 V initial applied voltage at the anodizing time of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 20, 30, and 60 minutes was performed. The result revealed that the disordered pores formed at 20 minutes of anodizing time due to fluctuating voltage when anodizing time increased. An initial increase in surface roughness was observed, reaching up to 7 µm at 8 minutes, followed by a sharp decrease to 1.8 µm at 10 minutes. Subsequently, the surface roughness increased again between 20 and 60 minutes of anodizing, ranging from 2.5 µm to 6.5 µm. The incorporation of DLC flakes in the oxide coating significantly reduced the formation of cracks and prevented them from propagating by occupying the pores. In addition, the DLC flakes also act as a physical barrier that hinders the dissolution of Al³⁺ into the electrolyte, which can cause further weakness in the oxide coating if the size of the pores increases. This study managed to reduce the knowledge gaps for the crack reduction mechanism of disordered porous oxide coating.

The COMPARISON ON STRUCTURAL, MORPHOLOGICAL AND ELECTRICAL ANALYSIS ON Mn AND Zn-DOPED KNN THIN FILM BY SOL-GEL METHOD

Muhd Afiq Hafizuddin Azman — 2025-06-01

The lead-free sodium potassium niobate (KNN) exhibits improved electrical and structural properties. This substance is well-known because it resembles lead zirconate titanate (PZT). KNN may replace the commonly used PZT, although it has significant drawbacks. This study introduced metal oxide doping. The perovskite structure of KNN contained manganese oxide (MnO) and zinc oxide (ZnO) dopants. The improved electrical characteristics of KNN thin films doped with MnO and ZnO were investigated by studying the effects of manganese and zinc dopants on the surface morphology and resistivity. The chemical solution deposition was used as methodology. Their structural, morphology and electrical properties of the doped KNN thin film were analysed using X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM), and LCR meter. The peak of all KNN thin films was in the (001), indicating a preferred for growth orientation. Mn-doped KNN films had improved crystallinity and suppressed secondary phases, while ZnO doping preserved the crystal structure with only minor disturbances. The microstructure of Mn-doped KNN thin films was homogeneous and dense with reduced grain boundaries, while Zn-doped KNN thin films had a denser morphology and bigger grain sizes, especially at higher doping levels. The electrical measurements showed that Mn doping increases resistivity, making films better for high-performance piezoelectric applications. Conversely, the incorporation of zinc resulted in a reduction in the electrical resistance of the material as its concentration increased. The work shows that Mn and Zn doping affects KNN thin film structural, morphological, and electrical properties differently. The results showed that MnO-doped KNN performed best at a concentration of 0.3 mol and ZnO-KNN at 0.9 mol. These results aid the development of improved KNN-based materials for electrical and piezoelectric applications.

EFFECT OF APPLIED VOLTAGE AND EPOXY SUSPENSION’S AGEING TIME ON SHEET RESISTANCE OF ELECTRODEPOSITED EPOXY COATINGS

Nurhaliana Shazwani Halim — 2025-06-01

This study investigates the effect of applied voltages and epoxy suspension’s ageing time on the sheet resistance of electrodeposited epoxy coatings. Electrophoretic deposition (EPD) was employed as a coating technique due to its precise control over thickness and uniformity, making it suitable for electrical applications. Different applied voltages (i.e. 30, 40, and 60 V) and epoxy ageing times (1, 72, and 144 hours) were examined to understand their impact on the resulting coating's sheet resistance. Characterisations of the electrodeposited epoxy coatings were conducted using the four-point probe method, weight gain measurement, field emission scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The results indicate that both the applied voltage and epoxy suspension’s ageing time significantly affect coating thickness and sheet resistance, with highest sheet resistance value of 818.0 9 kΩ/sq. is achieved at an applied voltage of 60 V and an hour ageing time. Higher voltages initially increase sheet resistance, but this effect diminishes with longer ageing times. These findings are essential for industries utilising epoxy coatings, suggesting that adopting the optimal applied voltage and epoxy suspension’s storing time can enhance coating performance and reliability. The study provides insight into tailoring electrodeposited epoxy coatings for customised sheet resistance properties, contributing to advancements in materials for electrical application.

EFFECT OF CONTROLLED TEMPERATURE ON SURFACE PROPERTIES OF ANODIC ALUMINUM OXIDE COMPOSITE COATING

Hasnol Hadi Zakaria — 2025-06-01

Bi-layered coating strategies for carbon-based materials reinforcement of composite oxide coatings show promise for producing long-lasting durable materials. The bi-layered coating comprises an oxide/graphite lubricant composite (top layer) and Diamond-like carbon (DLC)-contained oxide coating (sub-layer). Reinforcement particles contribute to the oxide coating by filling pores formed after anodizing; however, they do not alter the porous structure. However, the porous structure can be regulated by adjusting the electrolyte temperature, as anodizing temperature influences the growth and morphology of the oxide coating. A higher electrolyte temperature can increase porosity, which leads to hardness reduction. This study aims to control electrolyte temperature and examine the porous structure of the bi-layered composite oxide coating. The bi-layered composite oxide coating was fabricated on aluminum alloy (AA2017-T4) by anodizing method with various constant electrolyte temperature (30 ℃, 40 ℃, 50 ℃ & 60 ℃). The surface roughness of the oxide coating measured by 3D optical profiler where it affected by the pore dimension of the oxide layer. Then the microhardness was measured by using the Vickers hardness test. The pore dimension of the oxide layer showed reduction. The microhardness increased approximately up to twofold (from 205.8 HV to 413.4 HV) for conventional oxide coating and up to 25.10% (from 345.8 HV to 432.7 HV) for bi-layered composite oxide coating when compared between uncontrolled electrolyte temperature with controlled electrolyte temperature due to densification of the oxide film occur when the temperature of the electrolyte during the anodization controlled, especially at 50 ℃ where the highest microhardness achieved. Therefore, this finding will contribute to automotive applications as it enhanced the properties of the aluminum alloy where it is widely used in aircraft and automotive parts.

PINEAPPLE LEAF FIBRE/POLY (3-HYDROXYBUTYRATE-CO-3-HYDROXY VALERATE) DEGRADABLE COMPOSITE: MORPHOLOGY AND FAILURE PREDICTION OF MECHANICAL STRENGTH USING WEIBULL ANALYSIS

Zaleha Mustafa — 2025-06-01

This study investigates the mechanical properties and failure behaviour of biodegradable composites made with pineapple leaf fibre (PALF) and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) as the matrix. The study focuses on the effect of varying fibre loadings and their failure behaviour. The PALF was treated with a 5% NaOH solution, and the PALF/PHBV composites were prepared using solvent casting, followed by compression moulding. Flexural tests showed that increasing PALF content significantly improves both flexural strength and modulus, with the highest values observed at 40 wt.% PALF, reaching 108.36 (±8.53) MPa and 6.39 (± 0.71), respectively. Morphology analysis through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed better stress transfer and fibre-matrix adhesion at higher loadings, although some fibre pull-out and debonding were observed. Statistical analysis using a two-parameter Weibull distribution demonstrates that higher fibre content enhances mechanical strength and has a lower Weibull modulus than neat PHBV. This indicates greater variability of the composite strength, possibly caused by uneven stress distribution and poor matrix/fibre interface bonding. The study concludes that optimising fibre content is crucial for maximising the mechanical performance of PALF/PHBV composites. These findings contribute to the advancement of sustainable materials, highlighting the potential of the materials in developing high-performance bio-composites where sustainability, strength, and biodegradability are important considerations, such as automotive components, construction materials, agriculture and others.

CHARACTERIZATION OF MICROPOROUS ACTIVATED CARBON FROM COCONUT SHELLS BIOCHAR USING SODIUM CHLORIDE AS CHEMICAL ACTIVATION AGENT

Che Nor Aiza Jaafar — 2025-06-01

Activated carbon (AC) derived from coconut shells is extensively used in various industries due to its remarkable properties, such as high surface area and excellent physical and chemical stability. In this study, coconut shell activated carbon (CSAC) was produced using sodium chloride (NaCl) as a chemical activating agent at room temperature. This study examined how different NaCl concentrations (15%, 20%, and 25%) influenced the quality of the activated carbon produced. The raw coconut shells underwent carbonization at 400 °C, followed by chemical activation with NaCl. The characteristics of the activated carbon were evaluated based on parameters such as pore volume, bulk density, iodine number, and microstructure. Results indicated that increasing the NaCl concentration enhanced both pore volume and iodine number, while reducing density. The best performance was achieved with 25% NaCl, yielding an iodine number of 1068 mg/g and a pore volume of 0.19 cm³/g after 24 hours of treatment at room temperature. SEM analysis confirmed the presence of a highly porous surface morphology. Overall, the findings highlight NaCl as an effective and economical activating agent for producing high-quality activated carbon from coconut shells. The resulting CSAC exhibited properties comparable to commercial activated carbon, demonstrating its potential for industrial applications such as water treatment.

THE PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF NANOCELLULOSE FROM BAMBOO FIBERS

Muhammad Akmal Kosnan — 2025-06-01

Bamboo is recognized as a sustainable and renewable resource in Malaysia, with emerging potential for advanced material applications. To explore its viability for nanocellulose production, this study investigates the extraction of nanocrystals cellulose (NCC) from bamboo fibers through optimized chemical and mechanical processes, aiming to develop an efficient and environmentally conscious synthesis method. While there have been limited studies on bamboo, particularly Phyllostachys Aurea, this research uses acid hydrolysis with sulfuric (H₂SO₄) and hydrochloric (HCl) acids to prepare NCC. The study tested hydrochloric acid (HCl) concentrations between 50–70 wt% under controlled conditions (120 minutes, 45 °C). At 60% HCl, the hydrolysis yielded optimally dispersed crystalline cellulose with reduced aggregation, outperforming other concentrations. Specifying these conditions ensures methodological clarity and underscores the importance of acid concentration in nanocellulose synthesis. The resulting NCC exhibited a crystallinity index of 49.20% and a crystallite size of 4.04 nm, as confirmed by XRD and FTIR analyses. Additionally, Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) revealed a well-defined fibrous morphology and improved structural integrity, supporting the successful isolation of nanocellulose. The optimized process yields NCC with enhanced structural properties, demonstrating its potential as a reinforcing agent in nanocomposites. These findings position bamboo as a viable, eco-friendly resource for green material development.

GALLIC ACID IN COMBINATION WITH CISPLATIN TRIGGERED APOPTOSIS IN MCF-7 BREAST CANCER CELLS

Norlida Mamat — 2025-06-01

Breast cancer emerges as the most prevalent malignancy among women worldwide. While single-agent chemotherapy is commonly used in cancer treatment, combination therapy is generally considered more effective. Cisplatin is effective against a broad spectrum of cancers, though several drawbacks limit its clinical use. Combination treatment has proven to overcome these limitations, which involves pairing conventional drugs with natural compounds. Gallic acid exhibits potent antioxidant and anticancer activities, making it a potential candidate for such combinations. Therefore, this study aims to determine the effect of gallic acid combined with cisplatin on the proliferation of breast cancer cells (MCF-7) through apoptosis induction, characterised by the apoptotic morphology of the treated cells. The MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay was used to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration at 50% of cell populations (IC₅₀). The IC₅₀ value of gallic acid was combined with cisplatin and applied to the cells to obtain the combination index (CI) value using CompuSyn software. Apoptotic morphology was investigated using AO/PI staining and visualised under a fluorescence microscope. Gallic acid and cisplatin showed potent IC₅₀ (< 20 µg/mL) which were 9.765 µg/mL and 0.7869 µg/mL, respectively. A fixed concentration of gallic acid (9.765 µg/mL) combined with cisplatin at concentrations of 0.09836 µg/mL and 0.04918 µg/mL yielded CI values of 0.97423 and 0.65164 indicating a synergistic effect. Apoptotic features were observed morphologically in both single and combined treatments, with a higher number of apoptotic cells noted in the combined treatment, as indicated by bright green and orange fluorescence. This proves the potency of gallic acid in enhancing the antiproliferative effect of cisplatin against MCF-7 cells. In conclusion, a combination of gallic and cisplatin suppressed the MCF-7 cell proliferation through the induction of apoptosis.

SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERISATION OF PHOSPHORUS-DOPED AKERMANITE-BASED BIOCERAMICS

Fitria Pebriani Naibaho — 2025-06-01

Synthetic akermanite (Ca₂MgSi₂O₇) ceramics are viewed as promising candidates for bone implants due to their superior mechanical and bioactive properties compared to CaP-based ceramics. This paper investigates the effect of substituting phosphorus (P⁵⁺) ions on the physical, chemical/elemental, and morphological characteristics of akermanite-based powders produced at ambient conditions. To make the composition closer to our native bone, phosphate ions (P⁵⁺) were introduced into the akermanite host structure within controlled amounts, Ca₂MgSi_2-xP_xO₇(where x = 1, 1.5, 2.5, and 3.5 mol%). The powders were synthesised using planetary ball milling at 400 rpm for 4 hours, and the slurry was heated in the electric oven at 100 ℃ for 10 hours. X-ray diffraction pattern of the as-milled powders revealed no distinct akermanite phase, likely due to the poor crystallinity of the samples, as the synthesis was conducted at low temperature. However, a slight shift of the broad peaks toward higher angles was observed with increasing P⁵⁺substitution, suggesting structural changes in the short-range of the material. No apparent changes were observed in the functional groups detected, as the amount of dopant was relatively small. The elemental analysis confirmed the partial substitution of P⁵⁺ into the akermanite structure, with the amount of phosphorus increasing with increasing Phosphorus Pentoxide (P₂O₅). Despite the varying compositions, all the powders formed agglomerated particles due to the Van der Waals attractive forces between the particles. Based on physicochemical analyses, the optimum concentration of P⁵⁺ was found at 3.5 mol%. These findings indicate that P-doped akermanite-based materials provide valuable insights for use in orthopaedic applications.

FUNGAL DERIVED CHITOSAN/ CELLULOSE NANOCRYSTALLINE BIOCOMPOSITES: ENHANCING WATER RESISTANCE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Kuan Eng Hoe — 2025-06-01

Chitosan, a natural polymeric material, is widely used in packaging applications as it is good in barrier, optical, and mechanical properties. Traditionally, crustacean shells serve as the primary source for chitosan production using intensive acid and alkali treatments during its production. Furthermore, the commercial viability of chitosan production is hindered by fluctuations in both the quantity and quality of available crustacean shell waste, as well as the seasonal availability of this substrate, which can impact chitosan yield. In the current study, Agaricus bisporus fungal mushroom was used as a source for chitosan extraction. Fungal-derived chitosan (FCH) and cellulose nanocrystalline (CNC) biocomposite films were prepared and characterized using tensile test, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). However, the tensile strength and the water resistance of fungal derived chitosan is relatively lower compared to crustacean based chitosan. Therefore, the incorporation of cellulose nanocrystalline (CNC) has successfully improved approximately 90% of the tensile strength using 4 wt% of CNC content. The water resistance of the composite has increased after the addition of CNC. Upon the findings, FTIR analysis confirms the presence of fungal chitosan’s functional group. The FTIR spectra also showed the functional group of CNC in the composites. The micrograph of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) also indicated the good interfacial adhesion between composites film at 4 wt% NCC content. Therefore, the enhanced fungal derived chitosan (FCH) biocomposites could serve as suitable materials in food packaging.

COMPARATIVE LEAF MICROMORPHOLOGY AND PALYNOLOGY OF SELECTED Ruellia L. AND Justicia L. SPECIES FROM ACANTHACEAE FAMILY AND ITS TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCES

Che Nurul Aini Che Amri — 2025-06-01

A leaf micromorphology and palynological study was conducted on the selected Acanthaceae species namely Justicia betonica L, Justicia carnea Lindl., Justicia procumbens (L.) Lam., Ruellia repens L., Ruellia simplex C. Wright and Ruellia tuberosa L. Taxonomists often faced difficulties in identifying and classifying species within the Acanthaceae family, especially when plant specimens obtained from the field samplings are incomplete such as the absence of flowers and fruits. Thus, the objective of this study is to identify and list the characters of leaf micromorphology and palynology that are useful in identification of species in Acanthaceae. The procedures involved such as dehydration, critical point drying, gold coated and examination under scanning electron microscope Zeiss Supra 55VP and were analyses using SmartSEM software. Results revealed the common and variations characteristics of leaf micromorphology that can be useful in identification of species and genera studied such as type of epicuticular waxes, cuticular ornamentations, stomata characteristics and the presence of trichomes. Findings in this study also have shown some variations in the pollen morphology that can be used in species identification and classification. In conclusion, the results have demonstrated that leaf micromorphology and pollen morphology characteristics have taxonomic significance and can be used as an additional data especially in identification and classification of species as well as genera of Acanthaceae.

OPTIMIZATION OF T6 HEAT-TREATED Al₂O₃-CNT REINFORCED ALUMINIUM COMPOSITE: MICROSTRUCTURAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ANALYSIS

Mohammad Na'aim Abd Rahim — 2025-06-01

Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are widely used because of their high strength-to-weight ratios, excellent wear resistance, and thermal conductivity. Numerous studies have explored optimizing the mechanical properties of MMCs using hybrid nanoparticle reinforcements. In this study, alumina (Al₂O₃) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were used to reinforce aluminium alloy A356 through electromagnetic stirring (EMS), followed by T6 heat treatment. The composite fabrication involved varying Al₂O₃-CNT compositions and stirring durations. Optimization was conducted using the Taguchi Method to obtain the optimum combination of Al₂O₃-CNT. The influence of hybrid reinforcements and EMS on the microstructural distribution and mechanical properties was analyzed. Optical microscopy (OM) revealed that Al₂O₃-CNT reinforcement refined the grains and caused notable changes from dendritic to rosette structures, leading to closely packed grains with reduced porosity. Intermetallic phases in the composite were characterized using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD). The results revealed that the composite with 0.5 wt.% CNTs, 6 wt.% Al₂O₃, and 10 minutes of stirring time produced higher mechanical properties compared to other parameters. Under these conditions, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and elongation to fracture increased from 94.09 MPa, 221.10 MPa, and 11.37% to 117.18 MPa, 288.08 MPa, and 14.5%, respectively, after T6 heat treatment. These findings suggest that optimized reinforcement parameters, combined with T6 treatment, can significantly enhance the mechanical performance of Al₂O₃-CNT hybrid-reinforced aluminium alloys, making them promising materials for high-performance applications.

FLEXURAL BEHAVIOUR OF HYBRID EPOXY COMPOSITES REINFORCED BY RAMIE FIBRE AND COFFEE BEAN PARTICULATE

Sarah Nadiah Nordin — 2025-06-01

Natural fibre polymer composites (NFRC) have always been the focus of researchers due to their excellent properties and advantages. In recent years, environmental concerns have drawn attention to bio-based material composites. Despite extensive research on natural fibre reinforced polymers, the study of their mechanics is still in its infancy. Ramie fibre is a natural fibre that has been continuously tested to explore its great potential because of its excellent mechanical properties. Biodegradable waste, such as coffee bean particulate waste, has high potential for use as polymer reinforcement to improve the properties of composites. Therefore, in this study, the hybrid epoxy composite of ramie fibre and coffee bean particulate aims to enhance flexural behavior. Ramie fibre epoxy composites were fabricated with different fibre orientations of 0°/0° and 0°/90°, as well as different weight fractions of coffee bean powder at 5 wt%, 10 wt%, and 15 wt%. Fabrication was conducted using the VARI method. Three-point bending tests were carried out to evaluate the flexural properties. The results showed that flexural strength was maximized (29.945 MPa) at a fibre orientation of 0°/0° with 10 wt% of coffee bean powder. The fracture mechanism was investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The analysis revealed that the fibre-matrix interface exhibited defects such as delamination, matrix microcracks, fibre fracture, voids, and fibre pull-out. These failures indicate poor adhesion between the fibres and the matrix.

STUDY ON THE FOAMABILITY, MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND PRESSURE-RELIEF PERFORMANCE OF AMMONIA-FREE NATURAL RUBBER LATEX FOAM FOR SHOE INSOLES APPLICATIONS

Roslim Ramli — 2025-06-01

Ammonia-free natural rubber (AFNR) latex is a newly developed commercial grade of natural rubber (NR) latex concentrate aimed to address environmental and health concerns related to ammonia in the NR latex industry. This study investigates the viability of using AFNR latex to produce latex foam shoe insoles and compares it with that of traditional high-ammonia NR (HANR) latex. The Dunlop foaming process was used to produce both types of latex foams, each with a wet foam density of 0.2 gcm^-³. The study assessed the effect addition of varying levels (0, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 phr) of potassium oleate, a foaming agent, on the foamability of the latex. The findings indicate that AFNR latex exhibits lower foamability compared to HANR latex, although increasing the potassium oleate level enhances the foamability of AFNR latex. Additionally, the results show that AFNR latex foam requires a longer time to get a gel during the gelling process compared to HANR latex. A cross-sectional view using FESEM reveals that both AFNR and HANR latex foams exhibit open-cell structures. FESEM images also show smoother, thicker skin at the bottom compared to the upper part of both samples, with AFNR having 60 µm at the bottom and 38 µm at the upper and HANR having 52 µm at the bottom and 37 µm at the upper. The difference in skin structure contributes to the variation in Shore F hardness values but does not show a significant difference in pressure-relief performance. Despite differences in foamability and skin structure, AFNR latex shows comparable pressure-relief performance to HANR latex, indicating its potential for application in latex foam shoe insoles.

MORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF EPOXY COATED BAMBOO FIBERS BEFORE AND AFTER SEAWATER EXPOSURE

Rajes K.M. Rajan — 2025-06-01

Bamboo, recognized as a sustainable construction material, shows great potential for use in challenging environments such as seawater. However, its inherent hydrophilicity limits its application in such conditions. Therefore, enhancing the water resistivity of bamboo through the application of a polymeric coating is crucial to limit seawater absorption. This research aims to examine the effects of seawater on the morphological characteristics of bamboo fibers coated with epoxy, considering variations in seawater concentration. The bamboo samples were subjected to heat treatment at 170°C and manually coated with two layers of epoxy. They were then submerged in seawater at concentrations of 100%, 50%, and 0% for a duration of 21 days. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) analysis revealed that the double epoxy coatings provided complete surface coverage, characterized by continuity, uniformity, and smoothness. Additionally, the coating was observed to be intact and free of any damage on both the bamboo surface and the cross-section before immersion. However, samples exposed to 100% seawater exhibited significant coating degradation, characterized by surface deterioration and separation of the coating. Coating detachment was observed across all samples, with higher salinity levels resulting in more extensive damage. These findings highlight the role of epoxy coatings in enhancing bamboo's resistance to marine conditions, although their protective effects may be limited to short-term applications in seawater.

CHARACTERIZATION OF PLA-BASED HYBRID COMPOSITES: MECHANICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

Batrisyia Norhazlin — 2025-06-01

Sustainable materials and growing environmental concerns have contributed to the development of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites. Sugar palm fiber (SPF) is renewable, biodegradable, and eco-friendly while waste tyre rubber (WTR) is also useful for improving composite properties. This research focuses on creating poly(lactic acid) as a matrix material for these green composites (PLA) filaments reinforced with SPF and WTR for 3D printing. WTR and SPF were treated with 6 % NaOH and 3 % silane to improve interfacial adhesion with 97.5%PLA:2.5%SPF/WTR. Three different fiber loadings were evaluated 75%SPF:25%WTR, 50%SPF:50%WTR, and 25%SPF:75%WTR. The fabricated filaments from a twin-screw extruder were used to 3D print tensile ASTM D638, and flexural ASTM D790 test specimens with infill densities of 50 %, 70 %, and 100 %. The 75%SPF:25%WTR composite exhibited the best mechanical properties, with a tensile strength of 37.89 MPa and a flexural strength of 54.52 MPa. Consistent performance was observed across infill densities of 50 %, 70 %, and 100 % for 75%SPF:25%WTR highlighting the optimal mechanical characteristics at this fiber loading. Additionally, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis confirmed that the 75%SPF:25%WTR of this combination resulted in superior tensile strength. Enhanced performance is attributed to the improved interfacial adhesion between the treated fibers and the PLA matrix, as well as the uniform dispersion of the fibers within the composite. According to these findings, sugar palm and waste tyre rubber hybrid composites are highly sustainable and high-performance alternatives to petroleum-based plastics.

EFFECT OF PRE-HANDLING AND POST-TREATMENT CONDITIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF GREEN POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITE SLAB

Md Fauzan Kamal Mohd Yapandi — 2025-06-01

Electricity generation in Malaysia produces large volumes of coal bottom ash (CBA), which often accumulates in ash ponds or landfills, posing environmental risks. This study examines the potential of using CBA as a reinforcing filler in polypropylene (PP) composites to develop a sustainable and environmentally friendly material. The impact of pre-treatment (sieving) and post-treatment (heat exposure) on the physical and mechanical attributes of PP-CBA composite slabs was thoroughly examined. Findings revealed that filtering the CBA to a uniform particle size (~250 µm) significantly enhanced composite consistency, resulting in improved polymer-filler interaction, better bonding, and overall structural stability. However, subjecting the slabs to heat at 50 °C and 100 °C created a more porous structure due to moisture loss, which negatively affected crystallinity, durability, and mechanical resilience. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) results indicated a reduction in Silanol (Si-OH) groups and isotactic polypropylene (i-PP) peaks, confirming a decrease in crystallinity. The drop impact tests indicated that heated slabs exhibited reduced impact strength compared to untreated ones, with impact values decreasing from 3.4 J (sieved CBA) to 2.1 J (un-sieved CBA), further declining in heat-treated samples. The increase in impact strength observed with sieved CBA suggests that uniform particle distribution enhances mechanical integrity, making it a suitable candidate for applications in construction materials, lightweight structural panels, utility protection slabs, automotive components and furniture. However, moisture management and processing optimization are critical for maintaining mechanical performance and durability. Overall, this study supports the utilization of CBA into value-added materials, aligning with sustainable development and circular economy goals.

ADSORPTION OF CHLORAMPHENICOL BY SAGO BARK-BASED ACTIVATED CARBON OPTIMIZED BY RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY

Siti Zawiyah Baharom — 2025-06-01

When discharge into the environment, antibiotics like chloramphenicol (CAP), can pose significant environmental hazards, including harm to aquatic ecosystems. This pressing issue motivated the current study, which focuses on the development of sago bark-based activated carbon (SBAC) for the effective removal of CAP from water. SBAC was synthesized through a combined physicochemical activation approach involving chemical activation with potassium hydroxide (KOH) and subsequent microwave-assisted physical activation using carbon dioxide (CO₂) gas. The synthesis process was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) with a central composite design (CCD). The optimal conditions were identified as a radiation power of 343.56 W, an activation time of 17.13 minutes, and a KOH impregnation ratio (IR) of 1.62 g/g. Under these optimized parameters, the SBAC achieved a CAP adsorption capacity of 68.87 mg/g and a production yield of 32.81%. The predictive models demonstrated high reliability, with actual results closely matching the predicted values, evidenced by low error rates of 2.41% for CAP uptake and 1.45% for yield. Structural analysis using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) highlighted a stark transformation in the material’s morphology. The raw sago bark exhibited a dense, non-porous surface, whereas the activation process significantly enhanced its porosity, producing a highly porous SBAC surface. This confirmed the effectiveness of the combined activation techniques in creating a material with superior adsorption properties. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area of SBAC was 1003.23 m²/g. Isotherm studies revealed that the adsorption of CAP onto SBAC adhered to the Freundlich model, indicative of multilayer adsorption on a heterogeneous surface. The material demonstrated an impressive maximum adsorption capacity, Q_m of 131.83 mg/g, showcasing its potential as an efficient adsorbent for mitigating antibiotic contamination in water.

THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INFILL DENSITIES OF 3D PRINTED POLYAMIDE 12 COMPOSITE ON MC3T3-E1 ADHESION AND PROLIFERATION

Xue Zhang — 2025-06-01

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) three-dimensional printing (3D printing) technology has strong advantages in bone defect reconstruction due to its customizability, simple operation and relatively low cost. The hybrid β-tricalcium phosphate/zirconium oxide (β-TCP/ZrO₂) filled polyamide 12 (PA 12) filament feedstock is a new raw material that has been developed in recent years and is used to make FDM 3D-printed bone defect repair implants. Although previous studies have assessed thermal, mechanical and physical properties of 3D printed composites with in-house β-TCP/ZrO₂ filled PA 12 filament feedstock, the research on the biocompatibility of 3D printed PA 12 composite materials is still insufficient. Additionally, it has been proven that the pore size, porosity and crosslinking of 3D printed composites can affect cell growth and differentiation. The purpose of this article was to evaluate the biocompatibility of the 3D printed PA 12 composites through the use of MC3T3-E1 cells and try to explore the effects of the infill density of the 3D printed PA 12 composites on MC3T3-E1 proliferation. MC3T3-E1 cells were indirectly co-cultured with materials at 60%, 80% and 100% infill densities, respectively. Cell viability on day 1 and 3 was detected by Cell Counting Kit-8. The images of materials surface and cell adhesion on the composites were captured by Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy. The results showed that 3D printed PA 12 composite materials with 100%, 80% and 60% infill densities had no obvious cytotoxicity to MC3T3-E1. The 3D printed PA 12 composites had rough surfaces with fixed macropores and irregular micropores, making the composites conducive to cell adhesion. 3D printed PA 12 composites, especially the material with infill density of 80%, showed significant effects in promoting cell adhesion and proliferation.

RECENT ADVANCES IN HALAL RESEARCH VIA MICROSCOPY AND IMAGING APPROACHES: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES

Yazid Yaakob — 2025-06-01

Halal authentication has garnered a lot of attention in the last few years due to improve of public awareness in ensuring the food and product are safe, good quality and permissible by syariah to muslim consumer. Traditional methods for Halal verification often rely on labor-intensive techniques, with significant challenges in detecting cross-contamination and identifying trace amounts of non-Halal substances. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of recent advances in microscopy and imaging approaches which provided new opportunities to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of Halal authentication. Techniques such as light microscopy, electron microscopy and camera imaging have been proven to be effective in identifying contaminants and verifying Halal status by detecting foreign materials and microstructures at a cellular level as well as suitable for analyzing halal-critical animal-derived materials, such as leather, bone, and bristles. Despite these advancements, current microscopy imaging technologies face limitations such as high costs, technical complexity, and the need for skilled personnel. These challenges hinder the widespread adoption of these techniques in routine Halal testing compared to other methods such as spectroscopy. Additionally, the sensitivity and specificity of imaging methods need further improvement to effectively trace the non-Halal substances. Emerging technology such as machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) are powerful tools that can be employed in addressing these limitations. By integrating ML algorithms with imaging techniques, the speed and accuracy of Halal authentication can be significantly improved. AI-driven image analysis can provide prediction, assisting automate detection, reduce human error, and provide real-time insights, thus empowering existing technologies for better scalability. Looking forward, the convergence of advanced microscopy techniques and AI has the potential to revolutionize Halal research, enabling faster, more reliable, and cost-effective Halal authentication.

METAL SURFACE TREATMENTS AND THEIR EFFECT ON METAL-CERAMIC BOND STRENGTH: A REVIEW

Mohammed Mahdi Salih Al-Mashhadani — 2025-06-01

Despite the popularity of metal-ceramic restorations, bonding issues exist between metal and ceramic materials. Ceramic fractures in metal-ceramic restorations present significant aesthetic and functional challenges for both patients and dentists. Ceramic-fused-to-metal restorations are being developed to enhance the resistance to fracture of dental ceramic. A variety of metal alloys surface modifications, encompassing various physical, chemical, and biological techniques, have been implemented on a broad spectrum of precious and non-precious metal alloys, including Cobalt-Chromium (Co–Cr), Palladium-Silver (Pd-Ag), and Nickel-Chromium (Ni–Cr). These surface treatments strengthen the ceramic bond strength on metal alloys. In this review, we provide deep insights about various metal-ceramic alloys and the surface treatments utilized to enhance effectiveness in dental restorations. This study, for the first time, reviewed multiple studies evaluating the effectiveness of various surface metal treatments on their metal-ceramic bond strength. Pertaining to literature, it is evident that surface treatments like sandblasting, acid etching, and grinding improved the metal alloys’ bond strength. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) results demonstrated a markedly roughened metal surface following treatment, which is crucial for interaction in between metal and ceramic in enhancing bond strength. Most of the research has focused on the surface treatment’s effectiveness on the metal-ceramic bond in nonprecious or base metal alloys, whereas investigations involving noble or precious metals are limited. Nonetheless, these results primarily originate from preclinical studies and necessitate subsequent validation within the complex oral environment